Modern China
Authors: Jonathan Fenby, Jonathan Fenby
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Overview
Modern China, covering the period from 1850 to the present, explores the tumultuous journey of a nation grappling with internal strife, external pressures, and the search for its place in the modern world. The book is targeted at anyone interested in Chinese history, international relations, political science and economics, as well as those seeking to understand China’s current position on the world stage. Modern China is especially relevant today as the country continues its economic and political ascendancy. Within the historical field, this book provides a narrative that connects China’s past to its present, showing how the legacies of empire, revolution, and reform continue to shape the country’s trajectory.
The central argument of Modern China is that understanding the country’s transformation requires grasping its tumultuous history since the mid-19th century. Through exploring this journey, from the decline of the Qing Dynasty to the rise of the People’s Republic, I show how China’s past continues to influence its present.
Key conclusions of the book include the persistence of certain patterns throughout Chinese history, such as the tension between central authority and regional interests, the role of elites in shaping political and economic change, and the cyclical nature of reform and reaction. The book also highlights the profound impact of external forces, from Western imperialism to Japanese aggression, in shaping China’s development. Finally, the book concludes that China’s future will be determined by its ability to navigate the challenges and opportunities of the 21st century, including economic imbalances, social tensions, and the ongoing search for political reform.
Book Outline
1. Sons of Heaven
Imperial China, at the start of the modern era in 1850, was vast and seemingly immutable, ruled by emperors who claimed to be intermediaries between Heaven and Earth. But beneath the surface, instability brewed from natural disasters, internal rebellions, and pressure from Western powers seeking to open China to trade.
Key concept: The empire of China is an old, crazy, first-rate Man of War, which a fortunate succession of able and vigilant officers have contrived to keep afloat for these hundred and fifty years past…But, whenever an insufficient man happens to have command on deck, adieu to the discipline and safety of the ship.
2. Upheavals
The Qing Dynasty’s authority was further weakened by a series of natural disasters and uprisings. Famine, floods, and earthquakes compounded economic hardship, leading to social unrest and increased pressure on the imperial government.
Key concept: When the debt comes due one picul* is repaid as two.
3. Strength and Weakness
Despite some efforts at modernization by officials like Li Hongzhang and Zhang Zhidong, China struggled to adapt to Western technology and ideas. Internal divisions and resistance to change limited the effectiveness of these reforms.
Key concept: The policy of the central Government in China is not to guide, but to follow events.
4. Reform and Reaction
The disastrous defeat in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-5 exposed China’s vulnerabilities and led to calls for reform and modernization. The rise of reformers, notably Kang Youwei, led to the short-lived Hundred Days’ Reform of 1898, an attempt at rapid modernization that was ultimately suppressed by conservative forces.
Key concept:
5. On the Ropes
The Boxer Rebellion of 1900, fueled by anti-foreign sentiment and a desire to expel Western influences, led to further humiliation for China and increased foreign intervention. The event became a key symbolic moment in Chinese history.
Key concept:
6. Final Act
Despite China’s continued challenges, the Dowager Empress Cixi clung to power, overseeing a period of reform and reaction. Her death in 1908 marked the end of an era, leaving China on the brink of a revolution.
Key concept: ‘Never again allow any woman to hold the supreme power in the state.
Essential Questions
1. What factors led to the fall of the Qing Dynasty?
The fall of the Qing Dynasty resulted from a confluence of internal and external pressures. Internally, the Taiping Rebellion exposed the dynasty’s weakness and inability to control its vast territory. This triggered regional power shifts towards the gentry, laying the groundwork for the rise of warlords and further fragmentation of power. Externally, Western powers, through the Opium Wars and other interventions, exposed China’s military and technological backwardness, and imposed ‘unequal treaties’ that eroded Chinese sovereignty and fueled nationalistic resentment. Ultimately, the Qing’s inability to adapt to the changing global landscape, coupled with internal decay and external pressure, led to its demise in 1912.
2. Why did the republican experiment fail?
Despite promising beginnings, the republican era was marked by political instability, economic hardship, and social upheaval. The lack of a strong central government, coupled with the rise of powerful warlords who controlled vast territories, resulted in continuous warfare and fragmentation of the nation. Furthermore, economic mismanagement and hyperinflation exacerbated social problems and undermined popular support for the new regime. The failure to address fundamental issues such as widespread poverty, illiteracy, and the lack of health care, coupled with the persistence of traditional social structures and resistance to change, meant that the republican project never truly took hold, paving the way for the rise of Communism.
3. What were the main causes of conflict and dislocation in the period from the 1930s to the 1970s?
The tumultuous period from the 1930s to 1970s witnessed intense conflict and national dislocation, primarily due to two main factors. Firstly, the Japanese invasion, beginning with the seizure of Manchuria in 1931, brought death and destruction on a massive scale, and exposed the continuing weaknesses of the Chinese state. The war with Japan heightened nationalistic sentiment and created a ‘tangled alliance’ with the United States that was based on convenience and mutual distrust. Secondly, the struggle for power between the Nationalists and Communists compounded China’s problems as both sides pursued their agendas through military force and political maneuvering, leaving the country in a state of civil war, with devastating consequences for its people. The era ultimately paved the way for the rise of the Communist Party in 1949, but at an immense human cost.
4. How should Mao Zedong’s rule be characterized?
Mao’s rule was characterized by both brutal repression and social transformation. Through mass campaigns, purges, and the Cultural Revolution, he eliminated tens of millions of perceived enemies, real and imagined, and imposed an ideological straitjacket on Chinese society. His utopian visions, implemented through brutal force and disregard for human life, resulted in the Great Leap Forward famine and the nightmare of the Cultural Revolution. Yet, paradoxically, Mao also unified the mainland, expelled the ‘barbarians’, and restored a sense of national pride after decades of humiliation. His legacy remains deeply ambivalent, a mix of monstrous crimes and undeniable achievements that continue to influence China today.
5. What was the impact of Deng Xiaoping’s reforms, and how did the events of 1989 shape China’s political trajectory?
Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms transformed China into a global economic powerhouse, but the decision to suppress the Tiananmen Square protests in 1989 set a lasting precedent for the regime’s approach to political change. Deng’s ‘Southern Tour’ in 1992 unleashed a wave of economic growth and modernization, but he remained committed to the CCP’s monopoly on power. The reforms opened up China to the world, attracting foreign investment and integrating the country into the global economy. However, the suppression of dissent and the lack of political reform have created a growing tension between economic dynamism and political rigidity, a characteristic of the PRC that continues into the twenty-first century.
1. What factors led to the fall of the Qing Dynasty?
The fall of the Qing Dynasty resulted from a confluence of internal and external pressures. Internally, the Taiping Rebellion exposed the dynasty’s weakness and inability to control its vast territory. This triggered regional power shifts towards the gentry, laying the groundwork for the rise of warlords and further fragmentation of power. Externally, Western powers, through the Opium Wars and other interventions, exposed China’s military and technological backwardness, and imposed ‘unequal treaties’ that eroded Chinese sovereignty and fueled nationalistic resentment. Ultimately, the Qing’s inability to adapt to the changing global landscape, coupled with internal decay and external pressure, led to its demise in 1912.
2. Why did the republican experiment fail?
Despite promising beginnings, the republican era was marked by political instability, economic hardship, and social upheaval. The lack of a strong central government, coupled with the rise of powerful warlords who controlled vast territories, resulted in continuous warfare and fragmentation of the nation. Furthermore, economic mismanagement and hyperinflation exacerbated social problems and undermined popular support for the new regime. The failure to address fundamental issues such as widespread poverty, illiteracy, and the lack of health care, coupled with the persistence of traditional social structures and resistance to change, meant that the republican project never truly took hold, paving the way for the rise of Communism.
3. What were the main causes of conflict and dislocation in the period from the 1930s to the 1970s?
The tumultuous period from the 1930s to 1970s witnessed intense conflict and national dislocation, primarily due to two main factors. Firstly, the Japanese invasion, beginning with the seizure of Manchuria in 1931, brought death and destruction on a massive scale, and exposed the continuing weaknesses of the Chinese state. The war with Japan heightened nationalistic sentiment and created a ‘tangled alliance’ with the United States that was based on convenience and mutual distrust. Secondly, the struggle for power between the Nationalists and Communists compounded China’s problems as both sides pursued their agendas through military force and political maneuvering, leaving the country in a state of civil war, with devastating consequences for its people. The era ultimately paved the way for the rise of the Communist Party in 1949, but at an immense human cost.
4. How should Mao Zedong’s rule be characterized?
Mao’s rule was characterized by both brutal repression and social transformation. Through mass campaigns, purges, and the Cultural Revolution, he eliminated tens of millions of perceived enemies, real and imagined, and imposed an ideological straitjacket on Chinese society. His utopian visions, implemented through brutal force and disregard for human life, resulted in the Great Leap Forward famine and the nightmare of the Cultural Revolution. Yet, paradoxically, Mao also unified the mainland, expelled the ‘barbarians’, and restored a sense of national pride after decades of humiliation. His legacy remains deeply ambivalent, a mix of monstrous crimes and undeniable achievements that continue to influence China today.
5. What was the impact of Deng Xiaoping’s reforms, and how did the events of 1989 shape China’s political trajectory?
Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms transformed China into a global economic powerhouse, but the decision to suppress the Tiananmen Square protests in 1989 set a lasting precedent for the regime’s approach to political change. Deng’s ‘Southern Tour’ in 1992 unleashed a wave of economic growth and modernization, but he remained committed to the CCP’s monopoly on power. The reforms opened up China to the world, attracting foreign investment and integrating the country into the global economy. However, the suppression of dissent and the lack of political reform have created a growing tension between economic dynamism and political rigidity, a characteristic of the PRC that continues into the twenty-first century.
Key Takeaways
1. The enduring influence of Chinese tradition
Chinese culture and society are deeply rooted in tradition, with Confucian values of harmony, hierarchy and social order playing a major role in shaping social relations and behaviour. These cultural elements have persisted through centuries of dynastic change, revolution, and reform, influencing China’s interactions with the outside world and the leadership’s approach to governance.
Practical Application:
In product design for the Chinese market, understanding the emphasis on collectivism and social harmony can inform the development of products that cater to group needs and emphasize social connections.
2. The complexities of China’s relationship with the outside world
China’s complex relationship with the outside world, marked by both cooperation and conflict, has been shaped by a history of ‘unequal treaties’, foreign interventions, and the struggle for national recognition. The ‘century of humiliation’ from the mid-19th to mid-20th century has left a lasting legacy of resentment towards foreign powers, and fueled the desire for national revival and a prominent place on the world stage. Understanding this historical context is essential for interpreting China’s actions and ambitions in the 21st century.
Practical Application:
In international relations, recognizing the historical context of China’s relations with other countries, such as Japan or the United States, is crucial for navigating current geopolitical challenges and building trust.
3. The persistence of authoritarianism in Chinese politics
Chinese politics have long been characterized by a concentration of power, with a single leader or a small group of elites dominating the political landscape. From the emperors to Mao and Deng, the system has been subject to the whims and ambitions of those at the top. This has resulted in a pattern of purges, factional struggles, and sudden policy shifts, which have often had devastating consequences for the Chinese people. The legacy of authoritarianism continues to shape China’s political trajectory in the 21st century, as the Communist Party clings to its monopoly on power and resists political reform.
Practical Application:
In political risk assessment, understanding the CCP’s history of purges, factionalism, and the concentration of power in the hands of a single leader can inform predictions about future political stability and leadership transitions.
4. The importance of guanxi (relationships) in Chinese society
Informal networks and personal connections have always played a major role in navigating the system in China, from the imperial era to the present day. Patronage, clan membership, and the concept of ‘face’ influence business dealings, political appointments, and social relations. While economic reform has brought about greater individual freedom and opportunity, guanxi (relationships) remain a crucial asset for navigating the complexities of Chinese society and achieving personal or professional success.
Practical Application:
When managing a team, understanding the importance of social status, relationships, and informal networks can improve communication, build trust, and enhance collaboration.
5. The challenges of managing rapid economic growth and social change
China’s rapid economic growth has created unprecedented wealth and opportunities, but also resulted in growing social and economic disparities, between the booming coastal zones and the less-developed interior, between urban areas and the countryside, and between the new rich and the hundreds of millions still living in poverty. These disparities, coupled with environmental degradation, corruption, and social tension, pose a major challenge to the government’s ability to maintain stability and manage the country’s continued transformation.
Practical Application:
In economic development planning, understanding the regional disparities and imbalances within China can help to identify opportunities, mitigate risks, and promote sustainable growth.
1. The enduring influence of Chinese tradition
Chinese culture and society are deeply rooted in tradition, with Confucian values of harmony, hierarchy and social order playing a major role in shaping social relations and behaviour. These cultural elements have persisted through centuries of dynastic change, revolution, and reform, influencing China’s interactions with the outside world and the leadership’s approach to governance.
Practical Application:
In product design for the Chinese market, understanding the emphasis on collectivism and social harmony can inform the development of products that cater to group needs and emphasize social connections.
2. The complexities of China’s relationship with the outside world
China’s complex relationship with the outside world, marked by both cooperation and conflict, has been shaped by a history of ‘unequal treaties’, foreign interventions, and the struggle for national recognition. The ‘century of humiliation’ from the mid-19th to mid-20th century has left a lasting legacy of resentment towards foreign powers, and fueled the desire for national revival and a prominent place on the world stage. Understanding this historical context is essential for interpreting China’s actions and ambitions in the 21st century.
Practical Application:
In international relations, recognizing the historical context of China’s relations with other countries, such as Japan or the United States, is crucial for navigating current geopolitical challenges and building trust.
3. The persistence of authoritarianism in Chinese politics
Chinese politics have long been characterized by a concentration of power, with a single leader or a small group of elites dominating the political landscape. From the emperors to Mao and Deng, the system has been subject to the whims and ambitions of those at the top. This has resulted in a pattern of purges, factional struggles, and sudden policy shifts, which have often had devastating consequences for the Chinese people. The legacy of authoritarianism continues to shape China’s political trajectory in the 21st century, as the Communist Party clings to its monopoly on power and resists political reform.
Practical Application:
In political risk assessment, understanding the CCP’s history of purges, factionalism, and the concentration of power in the hands of a single leader can inform predictions about future political stability and leadership transitions.
4. The importance of guanxi (relationships) in Chinese society
Informal networks and personal connections have always played a major role in navigating the system in China, from the imperial era to the present day. Patronage, clan membership, and the concept of ‘face’ influence business dealings, political appointments, and social relations. While economic reform has brought about greater individual freedom and opportunity, guanxi (relationships) remain a crucial asset for navigating the complexities of Chinese society and achieving personal or professional success.
Practical Application:
When managing a team, understanding the importance of social status, relationships, and informal networks can improve communication, build trust, and enhance collaboration.
5. The challenges of managing rapid economic growth and social change
China’s rapid economic growth has created unprecedented wealth and opportunities, but also resulted in growing social and economic disparities, between the booming coastal zones and the less-developed interior, between urban areas and the countryside, and between the new rich and the hundreds of millions still living in poverty. These disparities, coupled with environmental degradation, corruption, and social tension, pose a major challenge to the government’s ability to maintain stability and manage the country’s continued transformation.
Practical Application:
In economic development planning, understanding the regional disparities and imbalances within China can help to identify opportunities, mitigate risks, and promote sustainable growth.
Suggested Deep Dive
Chapter: The Age of Deng
This chapter is crucial for understanding the economic and political forces that have shaped contemporary China, and the legacy of Deng’s reforms that continues to influence the country today. It’s particularly valuable for AI product engineers as it explores the rapid growth of China’s technology sector and its impact on the global economy.
Memorable Quotes
Chapter 1. 78
‘The empire of China is an old, crazy, first-rate Man of War…But, whenever an insufficient man happens to have command on deck, adieu to the discipline and safety of the ship.’
Chapter 2. 17
‘When the debt comes due one picul* is repaid as two.’
Chapter 10. 212
‘If I control the army, I will have the power to control the country.’
Note on Transliteration and Currency. 25
‘To see the future, one must grasp the past.’
Chapter 27. 567
‘To get rich is no sin.’
Chapter 1. 78
‘The empire of China is an old, crazy, first-rate Man of War…But, whenever an insufficient man happens to have command on deck, adieu to the discipline and safety of the ship.’
Chapter 2. 17
‘When the debt comes due one picul* is repaid as two.’
Chapter 10. 212
‘If I control the army, I will have the power to control the country.’
Note on Transliteration and Currency. 25
‘To see the future, one must grasp the past.’
Chapter 27. 567
‘To get rich is no sin.’
Comparative Analysis
My work, “Modern China”, offers a distinct perspective compared to other notable works in the field. Unlike Fairbank’s sweeping, multi-volume “Cambridge History of China”, which provides a comprehensive overview of Chinese history, my book focuses specifically on the modern era, from 1850 to the present. Spence’s “The Search for Modern China” also covers a broad period, but my work delves deeper into the political and economic forces at play, particularly the recurring tension between reform and reaction. Similar to Ezra Vogel’s “Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China”, I examine the role of individuals in shaping China’s trajectory, but I place greater emphasis on the continuity of certain patterns throughout Chinese history. Finally, unlike more specialized works such as Lucien Bianco’s “Origins of the Chinese Revolution”, I offer a more accessible narrative that connects China’s past to its present, and highlights the legacies of empire, revolution, and reform that continue to influence the nation today.
Reflection
Modern China, by providing a historical context for China’s rise as a global power, prompts reflection on how societies navigate change. The narrative, while generally grounded in facts, occasionally veers towards the author’s opinions, especially when dealing with controversial figures like Cixi or Mao. The argument for the continuity of authoritarianism throughout Chinese history, while compelling, might oversimplify the complexities of China’s political evolution. The book’s strength lies in its ability to connect the past to the present, showing how the legacies of empire, revolution, and reform continue to shape the country. A skeptical angle might question the inevitability of the Tiananmen massacre, arguing for a path of peaceful political change that was tragically missed. Overall, “Modern China” is a valuable contribution to understanding China’s tumultuous journey, its challenges, and its ongoing quest for its place in the world.
Flashcards
What major internal rebellion weakened the Qing Dynasty?
The Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)
Who was the dominant political figure behind the throne during the late Qing Dynasty?
Empress Dowager Cixi
What was the name of the late 19th-century effort to modernize the Qing military and industry?
The Self-Strengthening Movement
What war exposed China’s weaknesses and led to calls for reform?
The Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)
What uprising in 1900 targeted foreigners and Christians in China?
The Boxer Rebellion
In what year did the Qing Dynasty fall and the Republic of China begin?
1912
Who led the Northern Expedition and became the leader of Nationalist China?
Chiang Kai-shek
Who led the Chinese Communist Party to victory in 1949?
Mao Zedong
What was the name of Mao’s disastrous economic policy that led to widespread famine?
The Great Leap Forward
What was the name of Mao’s campaign to purge perceived enemies and consolidate his power?
The Cultural Revolution
What major internal rebellion weakened the Qing Dynasty?
The Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)
Who was the dominant political figure behind the throne during the late Qing Dynasty?
Empress Dowager Cixi
What was the name of the late 19th-century effort to modernize the Qing military and industry?
The Self-Strengthening Movement
What war exposed China’s weaknesses and led to calls for reform?
The Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)
What uprising in 1900 targeted foreigners and Christians in China?
The Boxer Rebellion
In what year did the Qing Dynasty fall and the Republic of China begin?
1912
Who led the Northern Expedition and became the leader of Nationalist China?
Chiang Kai-shek
Who led the Chinese Communist Party to victory in 1949?
Mao Zedong
What was the name of Mao’s disastrous economic policy that led to widespread famine?
The Great Leap Forward
What was the name of Mao’s campaign to purge perceived enemies and consolidate his power?
The Cultural Revolution